Literary Criticisms Of Emily Dickinsons Poetry Essays -

Literary Criticisms of Emily Dickinson's Poetry -1- Throughout Emily Dickinson's poetry there are three main themes that she addresses: death, love, and nature; as well as the impact of "the word". When discussing these themes she followed her lifestyle and broke away from traditional forms of writing and wrote with an intense energy and complexity never seen before and rarely seen today. She was a rarity not only because of her poetry but because she was one of the first female pioneers into the field of poetry. One of the most fascinating things about Dickinson's poetry is her overwhelming attention to detail, especially her "pin-point" insights on death. In "I've Seen a Dying Eye," by Emily Dickinson, is a poem about the nature of death. A sense of uncertainty and uncontrollability about death seems to exist. The observer's speech seems hesitant and unsure of what he or she is seeing, partly because of the dashes, but also because of the words used to describe the scene. As the eye is observed looking for something, then becoming cloudy and progressing through more obscurity until it finally comes to rest, the person observing the death cannot provide any definite proof that what the dying person saw was hopeful or disturbing. The dying person seems to have no control over the clouds covering his or her eye, which is frantically searching for something that it can only hope to find before the clouds totally, consume it. Death, as an uncontrollable force, -2- seems to sweep over the dying. More importantly, as the poem is from the point of view of the observer, whether the dying person saw anything or not is as significant as what the observer, and the reader, carry away from the poem. The suspicion of whether the dying person saw anything or had any control over his or her death is what is being played on in the poem. The main idea the poem is trying to convey is that death force itself upon the dying leaving them no control, and if something hopeful exists to be seen after death, it is a question left for the living to ponder. Love is another prevalent theme in Dickinson's poetry. "The Love of Thee-a Prism Be': Men and Women in the Love Poetry of Emily Dickinson," an essay by Adalaide Morris, a feminist critic, examines how Dickinson views love with an allegorical neatness created in her poem "The Love of Thee-a Prism Be" (98). Emily Dickinson believes that it is the prismatic quality of passion that matters, and the "energy passing through an experience of love reveals a spectrum of possibilities" (98). In keeping with her tradition of looking at the "circumference" of an idea, Dickinson never actually defines a conclusive love or lover at the end of her love poetry, instead concentrating on passion as a whole (99). Although she never defined a lover in her poems, many critics do believe that the object or focal point of her passion was Charles Wadsworth, a clergyman from Philadelphia In her poetry, Emily represents the males as the Lover, Father, King, Lord, and Master as the women take complimentary positions to their male superiors, and many times the relationship between the sexes is seen in metaphor-women as "His Little Spaniel" or his hunting gun. The woman's existence is only contingent to the encircling -3- power of the man (104). It could be noted that the relationship with her father created some of the associations that Dickinson used in her work-her father being involved in government, religion, and in control of the family. Dickinson's linked imagery in her male love poetry focuses on suns, storms, volcanoes, and wounds (100). There are always elements of disturbance or extremes and explosive settings. There are also repeated examples of the repression of love causing storm imagery to become "silent, suppressed" volcanic activity-something on the verge of explosion or activity. Of course, in the repressed individual the potential for explosion or action can be very dangerous, and frequently in Dickinson's work this kind of love relationship ends of with someone receiving a wound (100). Another underlying theme in Dickinson's poetry was nature. The Imagery of Emily Dickinson, by Ruth Flanders McNaughton, in a chapter entitled "Imagery of

Free Essays on Stranger -Simmel And Schutz

To Georg Simmel, the stranger is â€Å"an element of the group itself†¦ whose membership within the group involves both being outside it and confronting it.†# As a man with a Jewish background living in Nazi-Germany, he could certainly understand what it meant to be a stranger. While Simmel did in fact have great influence on the field of sociology, he also produced major works that may be classified as philosophy of history, ethics, general philosophy, philosophy of art, philosophy of contemporary civilization and metaphysics.# Even within the field of sociology, he cannot really be placed into any particular school of thought; however, he was very interested in the relativism of all items in many of these fields of study. This relativism is the idea that â€Å"all things are to be considered as interdependent, or as functions of each other.†# Donald N. Levine’s essay, â€Å"The Structure of Simmel’s Social Thought,† suggests that while S immel’s work is not distinctive as any particular school of thought, his works revolve around recurring categories of the subjects of social processes, social types, and developmental patterns.# In 1894, Simmel was the first teacher of a course specifically on sociology. He had a great reputation as a speaker and thinker. Simmel’s main goal in sociology was â€Å"to describe the forms of human communal existence and to find the rules according to which he or she is the member of a group.† These â€Å"social forms† – the entities produced by individual interactions- were the basis of his subject matter. He openly integrated psychology into sociology, attempting to â€Å"develop an abstract science of individual interactions.† His essay â€Å"The Stranger† examines the city as a place for these interactions, a place that â€Å"excites and alienates;† a place that leads to â€Å"the atrophy of individual culture through the hypertrophy of objective culture.†# The stranger described in Si... Free Essays on Stranger -Simmel And Schutz Free Essays on Stranger -Simmel And Schutz To Georg Simmel, the stranger is â€Å"an element of the group itself†¦ whose membership within the group involves both being outside it and confronting it.†# As a man with a Jewish background living in Nazi-Germany, he could certainly understand what it meant to be a stranger. While Simmel did in fact have great influence on the field of sociology, he also produced major works that may be classified as philosophy of history, ethics, general philosophy, philosophy of art, philosophy of contemporary civilization and metaphysics.# Even within the field of sociology, he cannot really be placed into any particular school of thought; however, he was very interested in the relativism of all items in many of these fields of study. This relativism is the idea that â€Å"all things are to be considered as interdependent, or as functions of each other.†# Donald N. Levine’s essay, â€Å"The Structure of Simmel’s Social Thought,† suggests that while S immel’s work is not distinctive as any particular school of thought, his works revolve around recurring categories of the subjects of social processes, social types, and developmental patterns.# In 1894, Simmel was the first teacher of a course specifically on sociology. He had a great reputation as a speaker and thinker. Simmel’s main goal in sociology was â€Å"to describe the forms of human communal existence and to find the rules according to which he or she is the member of a group.† These â€Å"social forms† – the entities produced by individual interactions- were the basis of his subject matter. He openly integrated psychology into sociology, attempting to â€Å"develop an abstract science of individual interactions.† His essay â€Å"The Stranger† examines the city as a place for these interactions, a place that â€Å"excites and alienates;† a place that leads to â€Å"the atrophy of individual culture through the hypertrophy of objective culture.†# The stranger described in Si...

Icebreaker Games for the First Day of Drama Class

Icebreaker Games for the First Day of Drama Class At the beginning of every semester, a drama teacher has a difficult challenge. How does one get twenty-three complete strangers to quickly become friends and colleagues? Circle icebreakers help students and teachers learn names, project voices, and express themselves. Each one of these activities provides an entertaining experience. The games may be simple enough for elementary students, but teens will have just as much fun, if not more! There are many variations of these activities, but the first and foremost step is to form a circle so that all of the participants can clearly see one another. Name Game This is an ideal first-day activity. Each person announces her name while stepping forward and striking a pose that reflects her personality. For example, Emily might hop out, angle her arms like an Egyptian hieroglyphic and joyously shout, â€Å"Emily!† Then, everyone else jumps forward and copies Emily’s voice and movement. Afterward, the circle returns to normal, and then it’s on to the next person. It’s a great way for everyone to introduce themselves. World's Greatest Sandwich In this fun memory game, the players sit in a circle. One person begins by saying his/her name and then states what ingredient goes on the sandwich. Example: My name is Kevin, and the worlds greatest sandwich has pickles. The next person in the circle announces their name and says Kevins ingredient as well as her own. Hi, my name is Sarah, and the worlds greatest sandwich has pickles and popcorn. If the instructor chooses, everyone can chant along as the sandwich grows. The last time I played this game, we ended up with a Pickle-popcorn-meatball-chocolate-syrup-grass-eyeball-lettuce-pixie dust sandwich. This activity helps the students build memorization skills. And finally, have the kids pantomime taking a bite. Whoozit For this game, one person is chosen to be the â€Å"Seeker.† After that person leaves the room, another person is chosen to be the â€Å"Whoozit.† This player makes constant rhythmic motions that change every twenty seconds or so. For example, first, the Whoozit might clap his hands, then snap fingers, then pat his head. The other circle members discretely follow along. The Seeker then enters, hoping to figure out which student is the Whoozit. Standing in the middle of the circle, she gets three guesses while the Whoozit tries his best to constantly switch actions without being noticed. [Note: this is essentially the same game as Indian Chief, though the name is more politically correct!] Rhyme Time In this fast-paced game, the instructor stands in the center of the circle. She names a setting and a situation. Then, she points to one of the players at random. Using improvisation skills, the player begins telling a story with a single sentence. For example, he might say, â€Å"I just found out I have a long: â€Å"I guess Mom tossed a coin and my Bro didn’t win.† The rhymes are couplets, so the next chosen player creates a new line of the story with a new sound. The improvised tale goes on until a student fails to produce a rhyme. Then he sits in the middle of the circle. This goes on until the circle shrinks down to one or two champions. Instructors should make certain to increase the speed as the game progresses. Players may want to prohibit tricky words like orange, purple and month.

A Laboratory Scientist in the Organization Assignment

A Laboratory Scientist in the Organization - Assignment Example In a more general term, laboratory scientists in any institution are the head of an experiment and chemical keeping without which it should impact any danger to other members of the organization. a). According to Blanchard and Thacker (2007, p. 25), an employment contract refers to the signing of a paperwork between two parties (employer and employee) to set the commencement of a given work within the specified rules and regulations that seem acceptable and legal by the law and which do not infringe on anyone’s rights. The contract normally has a limit of time. The employers should be responsible for their health and safety. They should identify hazards in a systematic manner and eliminate or isolating those that are possible. For instance, employers may recognize the necessary steps to minimize the hazards, by providing information, as well as warnings. Also, by identifying whether there are any regulations covering their industry and complying with them. Providing protective equipment clothing or ensuring employee provided protective is suitable and ensuring that they are used effectively. They should also be trained in order to impart in them the necessary skills to manage their own safety. Employers should recognize any accident that might have occurred while been out keen so as to avoid the same in the future. Being keen on any signs of a disease and reporting to the clinic immediately in case of any signs. Responding to inspector’s advice and ensuring that work practices together with working hours are followed in a manner that enhances a safe-working condition. Environmental laws currently carried out in England covers the following key areas: waste management, water pollution, air pollution, noise, hazardous substances, contaminated land and the IPC/IPPC regimes. b). ISO is the International organization for standardization, a worldwide organization with representatives from 157 countries.  

Existentialism and Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Existentialism and Art - Essay Example A look into these various concepts proves that Leo Tolstoy comes up with the best explanation regarding art. According to him, art is a form of communication that can take various forms. If it succeeds in developing an emotion, it is an art. Aristotle and Art According to the Aristotelian view, art is an imitation of life. He starts his theory of art with the claim that humans have the urge to imitate, and this tendency to imitate is the very basis of human learning. It is this tendency that makes humans delight in works of imitation. Thus, according to the scholar’s opinion, various people imitate using various medium ranging from color and voice. As Butcher (1951, p. 116) says, this concept contains three elements of imitation. They are rhythm, language, and harmony. Here, Aristotle brings in the concept of virtue in art. To illustrate, the factor that decides whether a particular artwork is a comedy or a tragedy is the object that is imitated in the work. Though the art for m used is the same, the emotions it creates will be quite opposite in both the cases. Thus, when one follows the Aristotle's point of view, one gets a chance to evaluate the quality of art and the element of virtue in it. This becomes possible because the artist is supposed only to imitate, not to create. Evidently, there are a number of pitfalls in the Aristotelian view. ... For example, if the quality is assessed from the perfection in imitation, people from other geographical areas will not be able to assess the quality of any art. In other words, an art form will be highly limited to people in that geographical area or who are familiar with the item being imitated. Another issue arises that the concept does not take into account the authenticity of abstract works. To illustrate, it forgets the quality of Cubism and Pop as art forms, though they are not realistic reflections of nature. Thus, it becomes evident that though Aristotle managed to present the human characteristic of imitation, he failed to develop a flawless theory of art out of it. Plato and Art One can see that Plato too shows a tendency to consider art as an imitation though he develops a bit on the concept; but to the wrong side. In The Republic, Plato claims that art is an imitation of the things and events that one encounters in everyday life (p. 69). However, admittedly, Platoâ€℠¢s theory goes astray when things like music are considered. For example, even though Plato claims that music represents natural sounds and emotions, one can easily find that there is no imitation of anything natural other than emotion. However, Plato’s effort to show how complicated art can be in imitating things deserves appreciation. To illustrate, in The Allegory of the Cave, Plato describes the example of some prisoners chained to a bench, facing the wall of a deep cave. Behind them, artists are performing puppet play, and the prisoners could only see the shadows what they perceive as reality. However, as one prisoner gets released, he sees the puppets that produced the shadows (The allegory of the cave, 2011). Thus, one sees that, though Plato considers art

Technology and Its Influences on Humanity Essay Example for Free

Technology and Its Influences on Humanity Essay As technology becomes a bigger part of our every day life, more people are questioning its influences on our humanity. There are many factors to consider when looking at this question, beginning with, â€Å"who is affecting whom?† Are we changing our technology to fit our ideas on humanity, or is our humanity changing the way we influence technology? We also need to look at the meaning of the words technology and humanity to understand the question fully. Yes, technology has a huge influence on our humanity as it is such a major part of our every day lives and has become part of the evolution of human nature, it modifies human qualities, while at the same time, humanity is influencing technology as the development and expansion of technology is created by humans. To start to understand this question we should look at the words and their meanings. Definition of humanity the quality or condition of being human, human nature. Human nature is the concept that there is a set of inherent distinguishing characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting. Human nature is what gives us a moral sense, provides us with the social skills to live in society. The qualities of humanity include the abilities to feel, create and love however, it also includes qualities which are not necessarily appreciated such as suffering, aging, and being imperfect. All of these natural human qualities form unique individuals which make up the fascinating diversity of human nature. Next lets look at the word technology: how people modify the natural world to suit their own purposes generally it refers to the diverse collection of processes and knowledge that people use to extend human abilities and to satisfy human needs and wants. Genetics, robotics, information technology and Nano processes – which modify and transform humans and human nature are some examples of recent advancements in the technology field. These technological innovations are adding up to a world profoundly different from the one humans are accustomed to living in. Humans greatly benefit from these technological innovations as almost all technology is created in order to make life easier and more enjoyable. Although technology is making life easier and helping human desires to become reality, in the long run, it will change the course of humanity. Technology which accomplishes work much faster, easier and simpler than humans is increasing, hence, may result in the future where humans are not needed. Although technology has many benefits for humans, the rapid developments of technology could be said to be influencing the concept of humanity. However, this exponential innovation can be considered as a part of humanity. It is true that humans are the ones who have created these innovations, hence is it correct in considering technological innovations to be part of humanity or diverged from humanity? Here is a logical explanation of the fact that humanity is influencing technology. Technology comes about only because of the human, thinking, rational mind. The human mind is the essence and core of our humanity. Without the human mind, there are no life-saving comforts that we can take for granted. Without these life-saving comforts, all of civilization as we know it would collapse†¦. without humanity, there is no technology. The development of technology is humans extending their own horizons and hence, technology can be said to be influenced by humanity or to be part of the nature of the human species. Technology is rapidly increasing as it benefits and fulfills what people want in life. However, technology is likely to influence and affect humanity in negative ways such as altering the nature of humanity which can lead to issues concerning morals. Yet at the same time, technology can be considered as a part of the nature of human evolution or an influence of human nature. However, the importance of keeping humane qualities should not be influenced, forgotten or taken over by technology. When we consider how older generations had very little if any technology (in the same form that we now consider technology) compared to present day advancements, it would seem important to compare those from older generations with those from present generations. These advancements in technology really began to boom after the first world war, due to every changing requirements to make warfare more advanced than other countries. These very quick advancements are still the basis for a lot of todays technology. Through exploring this question, it can be understood that although technology can have negative effects on humanity, it is almost impossible to eradicate the developments of technology as it is part of the evolution of human nature. Hence, humans must aim to live with technology to create meaningful value for all humanity. On the flip side, there are a lot of technology advances that have made our health and well being more advanced, we are now living longer and are more aware of any possible health complications. As well as having more capable and complicated machines to do many different things, such as diagnosing and treating the sick. However, even though technology can be considered as part of humanity, it should not be taken for granted as it is more important to preserve the qualities which make people human. It is somehow necessary to our self-understanding of what we are as human beings†¦ you can’t have courage without risk†¦ real compassion or sympathy without the personal experience of pain. Therefore, it is necessary that technology allows us to more fully express our humanity, instead of overwhelming it. Thus, what is important is what humans do with the technology which has great influence on humanity. Hence, technology should be used and created while preserving humanity.

Essay --

There are different types of eating disorders including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating. Anorexia nervosa, commonly known as anorexia, is an eating disorder in which a person starves himself or herself and often over exercises therefore depriving their vital organs of essential nutrients needed to survive (Berger, 2010). Bulimia nervosa, commonly known as bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging (Berger, 2010). Binge eating is a disorder in which a person loses control of their eating habits and does not compensate for the amount of food he/she eats (NEDA, 2001). Although there are some popular beliefs that these eating disorders can be the result of low-self esteem, poor family and peer support, and media influence new research has found that only some of these reasons are completely true. Although it is commonly assumed that social networking may lower a person’s self image due to online bullying and self comparison to other users, a recent Facebook study has found that viewing oneself online can actually improve self-esteem. In 2011, Dr. Amy Gonzales and Professor Jeffery Hancock from Cornell University researched the effects on self-esteem using 63 participants including 16 males and 47 females. Gonzales and Hancock split the large group into three smaller groups in which the conditions were as follows: â€Å"exposure to a mirror, exposure to one’s own Facebook site, and a control condition in which participants used the same room without any treatment† (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011, pg 81). The participants would then get surveyed concerning their own self-esteem and graded using the â€Å"Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale† (Rosenberg, 1965). The study concluded that those who were expo... ...edia does not have effect on eating disorders. Levine and Murnen (2009) concluded that if eating disorders are a psychiatric illness that begin in childhood, and all environmental factors should contribute to the development of an eating disorder, then the possibility for a child to binge eat is greater than a child developing anorexia or bulimia. The idea that mass media is responsible for anorexia and bulimia is irrelevant when considering that children will notice media concerning fatty foods more than they will notice media with visuals of thin women or bulky men. Mass media seems to be more relevant in the event of binge eating or obesity because children are more attracted to donuts then they are skinny models. A child is more likely to grow up eating the foods they see on television rather than starving themselves to look like a model they see on television.

Immortal Characteristics in the Iliad and the Aeneid Essay

Although written in two distinct eras, The Aeneid and The Iliad offer views of the Trojan War, which have been studied for centuries.   The Iliad, written by Homer in 750-650 BCE, portrays the tale from the Greek point of view.   Sometimes thought to have been a mythic person himself, the telling of The Iliad is attributed to him nonetheless.   The story, written originally in ancient Greek, speaks from an omniscient narrator who can share all details encountered in the main character, Achilles, involvement in the war. Achilles has refused to fight in retribution for Agamemnon stealing his war prize, Briseis.   The Aeneid, on the other hand, is known to have come from the Roman poet, Virgil.   Although the main character, Aeneas, tells portions of the story, Virgil himself narrates the majority of the tale.   Aeneas is traveling to Italy to build a race of Romans.   Juno, who is still angry with the Trojans, sets Aeneas off course and the story begins with a recounting of the war itself. In the way the tales themselves offer varying illuminations on the same setting in Greece, the Gods portrayed share differing characteristics.   In The Iliad, Zeus stands as the king of the Gods.   He refuses to take sides in this war of men, although his favor moves to the Trojan side after Achilles’ mother begs him to intervene.   We find Zeus bothered by the request.   He is involved with domestic disputes already with his wife, Hera, and is reluctant to do any further damage to his solitude.   â€Å"Here is trouble.   You drive me into open war with Hera sooner or later: she will be at me, scolding all day long. Even as matters stand she never rests from badgering me before the gods: I take the Trojan side in battle, so she says,† (Homer, I.593-599).   He does go on to promise he will do as she has asked, although the reader can sense his foreboding in doing so.   His foresight is strong though, as Hera’s reaction is as he said it would be – biting and harsh.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Who is it this time, schemer?   Who has your ear?   How fond are you of secret plans, of taking decisions privately,† (Homer, I.620-622).   Zeus is portrayed as a beaten God, one who is verbally assaulted by his own wife and appears to be weary of her scorn. One can sense the laughter as the words are written, the hidden personalities that are so similar to common man. Jupiter, however, does not worry over what he will go through personally in order to grant the wish of the goddess who has appealed to him.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"With the serenity that calms the weather, and lightly kissed his daughter.   Then he said: No need to be afraid, Cytherea.   Your children’s destiny has not been changed,† (Virgil, I.345-348).   Jupiter has granted what she sought, and promises that her progeny will found the great kingdom of Rome, named after one of the twin sons to come from Aeneas.    The reader can already discern favoritism for the Romans by this issuance of Jupiter.   He is not a hen-pecked God as Zeus is, although Jupiter’s wife is not a timid creature.   Much like Hera, she is vastly upset and carried a grave distaste for the Trojans.   Jupiter, however, feels Juno will eventually relax.   â€Å"Juno, indeed, whose bitterness now fills with fear and torment sea and earth and sky, will mend her ways, and favor them as I do, Lords of the World, the toga-bearing Romans,† (Virgil, I.376-379). The reader gets the sense that the Greek Gods as told of by Homer are seen as folly.   Zeus is not the almighty master, as one would suspect the king of the Gods to be.   He is stuck between caring for his subjects, the minor Gods, and listening to the gripes and complaints of his wife, the telling is almost comical.   Virgil, however, tells the origination of a great race of people, his own Romans.   The Jupiter is patient and assured of the greatness to come.   His caring ways with his daughter and sincere belief that all will be as he said indicate his power and greatness, showing him to be a true King of the Gods. The physical separation between God and mortal man is great.   In the eleventh book of The Iliad, we find Zeus directly interfering with the battle on hand.   â€Å"Now Zeus, the son of Kronos roused an uproar along his host, and sprinkled bloody dew from highest heaven, being resolved that day to crowd great warriors in to the undergloom,† (Homer, XI,58-61).   The battle between Greek and Trojan forces allowed yet another display of Zeus’ great power over man. Zeus demonstrates this power while protecting Hector. â€Å"Hector moved forward with his round-faced shield.   As from night clouds a baleful summer star will blaze into the clear, then fade in cloud, so Hector shone in front or became hidden when he harangued the rear ranks – his whole form in bronze aflash like lightening of father Zeus,† (Homer, XI.67-72).   The soldiers recognize the ability of Hector to shadow himself as the protection of the Gods.   Zeus’ otherworldly display of power and support for the Trojan cause signifies the justness of their cause, yet as we already know, his might is not good enough.   Troy will lose the battle and the God is not all-powerful in the end. The Aeneid however, shows the true power and wisdom of Jupiter is not only just, but up to the task as well.   Aeneas will reach his destination, and Rome will become the great power it is meant to be.   Jupiter sees that Aeneas has fallen sedentary with his love for Dido and remains with her rather than fulfilling his duty as Jupiter told him.  Ã‚   The scourge of the earth is not brought down on his head to force him off the island.   The all-powerful Jupiter simply sends a messenger, Mercury.   â€Å"From bright Mount Olympus he that rules the Gods and turns the earth and heaven by his power – he and no other sent me to you, told me to bring this message on the running winds: what have you in mind?   †¦the land of Rome are due,† (Virgil, IV.365-375). Aeneas is reminded of his family fortune and honor, which are on the line.   True to his word and loyal to his God, Aeneas leaves Dido to fend for herself.   Her misery and subsequent suicide are not given any thought by Jupiter, the mission is at hand and the great Roman peoples are far more important than a single female.   â€Å"Beating her lovely breast three times, four times, and tearing her golden hair, ‘Oh Jupiter! †¦will this man go, will he have mocked my kingdom, stranger than he is and was,’† (Virgil, IV.816-820)?   Jupiter pays her no mind; the Roman Empire is at stake.   Again, it is in silent action, verbal mandates that Jupiter issues his power.   He is not forced to resort to mortal measures to ensure his will is done. Zeus is portrayed as the mover, the God who has to physically partake in things to get anything accomplished.   The stronger God of the two, Jupiter, simply asks and gets what he wants.   The fear of retribution is fierce amongst not only the people, but also the Gods.   He does not take pity on the fallen as Zeus does.   In terms of masculine strength, Jupiter is by far the strongest.   Of course, such an amazing group of warriors, philosophers and artisans could never have come from so slovenly a King as Zeus. As the war wages on in The Iliad, Zeus is once again shown to be a weaker form than the mighty Jupiter.   Achilles has lost his best friend, Patroclus, in battle. Heartbroken, he vows to return to the battle immediately to slay Hector in revenge.   Although Zeus has long since gone to help the Achaeans in fighting this war, â€Å"Zeus took pity on them, saying quickly to Athena: Daughter, you seem to have left your fighting man alone.   Should one suppose you care no more for Achilles?   The he sits, before the curving prows, and grieves for his dear friend. The other soldiers flock to meat; he thirsts and hungers.   Come, infuse him sweet nectar and ambrosia, that an empty belly may not weaken him,† (Homer, XIX.374-382). Athena then goes off to give the poor warriors some nourishment so they may fight bravely in their final battles.   His heart still belongs to the losing side.   We see his weakness again with the interference into the battle.   In calling the Gods to Mount Olympus, Zeus tells them, â€Å"You know what plan I have in mind and why I called you, why you are here. Men on both sides may perish, still they are near my heart.   And yet, by heaven, here I stay at ease upon a ridge.   I’ll have an ample view here.   But you others, go into action, side with the men of Troy or with Achaeans, as each has a mind to,† (Homer XX.22-29).   Zeus lazily tells the other Gods that the people are dying and it breaks his heart.   However, he will sit on the mountaintop and watch the spectacle.   They should go down and help whichever side they feel is just, but he will just watch.   Homer again makes fun of the God.   He is a couch potato during the war he was powerless to stop in the first place.   His wife is constantly meddling in the affairs of state, and Zeus will not step in to act according to his heart. Jupiter does not have this problem toward the end of The Aeneid.   When fighting has broken out in Italy and the great Romans are fighting amongst themselves, Jupiter is asked his opinion.   He responds in a regal and self-assured manner.   When he opens his mouth to speak, all of the earth responds in kind. â€Å"The almighty father then, chief power of the world, began to speak, and as he spoke the great halls of the Gods fell silent, and earth quaked, and silence reigned in the highest air, the west-winds went to rest, the deep sea stilled his waters to calm,† (Virgil, X.137-142).   He has decided that fate will serve each man his own plate.   Jupiter no longer condones divine intervention.   This surprises virtually everyone present, as they have interfered in these matters right from the start.   Yet, the King of the Gods has spoken and it cannot be any other way.   â€Å"He took oath nodding, making all Olympus tremble at his nod.   There was an end of speaking.   Jupiter form his golden throne arose, and lords of heaven on either hand escorted him to the threshold of his hall,† (Virgil, X.160-164). Although the King of the Gods in each depiction of the Trojan wars and its eventual outcomes acted in extremely different ways, the act remains that they were in control the entire time.   The main protagonists for each tale are not afforded this same luxury.   In The Iliad, Achilles never has control over his bloodlust for Agamemnon.   His search for glory and the switching of sides is beyond his control so to speak.   The usurping of his prize from the war damaged his pride and it is the sole driving force for him.   When his best friend is killed, he appears to have devised a higher purpose for his rage, yet the reader notes he is still guided for his own gratification throughout. Aeneas, blindly does as he is bid to do.   He leaves his heart behind when he leaves Dido on the island.   Jupiter is not concerned with the trivial matters before him, and concerns himself only with the Roman creation.   Aeneas cannot simply believe that Dido will eventually understand what he must do, unlike Jupiter feelings for Juno.   The foresight the Gods portray separate them greatly from humanity, making the people seem as though they are simply pieces of a chess game, there for the amusement of creatures bored with eternity. Although Homer pokes fun at the God from the past and uses the tale to tell of the heroism of the Greek people, he fails to place his own God at the forefront as a just and caring ruler.   Virgil at least shows the God of the Romans as one who delights in the magnificence of the race. Physically the gods are far superior to the men they control, but in the case of Zeus, he is far from being above the simple human frailty of emotion.   Homer instills a sense of commonality between the people and their God, one in which the playing field is an equal one.   The Gods are affected by this war almost as much as the people are.   When interfering in the matters of men, the Gods are shaken to the core in some instances, harmed in others, and heartbroken other times still. For Virgil, the people end on the positive note.   The great anti-hero is dead, and the true hero does not turn out to be Aeneas, but the Romans themselves.   The reader sees throughout the epic poem, that Virgil had them in mind all along.   The creation myth of the great empire seeks to solidify their place in the world and by showing that that creation came from a just and powerful authority – he accomplishes just that. Works Cited Homer.   The Iliad. Trs. Robert Fagles.   New York, NY: Penguin Classics, 1998. Virgil. The Aeneid. Trs. W.F. Jackson Knight. New York, NY: Penguin Classics, 2006.

Advertising Ethics: a Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory

Advertising Ethics: A Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory Cornelius B. Pratt E. LincolnJames ABSTRACT. F. P. Bishop argues that the ethical standard for advertising practitioners nmst be utilitarian. Indeed, the utilitarian theory of ethics in decision-making has traditionally been the preference of U. S. advertisingpractitioners. This article, therefore, argues that the U. S. advertising industry's de-emphasisof ;ontological ethics is a reason for its continuing struggle with unfavorable public perceptions of its ethics – and credibility.The perceptions of four scenarios on advertisingethics and the analyses of the openended responses of 174 members of the American Advertising Federation to those scenarios suggest that advertising practitioners need a stricter adherence to deontological ethics than is indicated in this study. Advertising, a traditionally high-profile management function since World War II, perpetuates a paradox. On the one hand, it is common ly touted by business and the academy as a major economic, social and competitive force in post-world war economies. On the other hand, it is, invariably, a bull's-eye for public wrath.Cowton (1992), Crisp (1987), and Litttechild (1982), for example, present evidence on consumer suspicion and antipathy toward and investor concerns about advertising Cornelius B. Pratt is Associate Professor in the Department of Advertising, at Michigan State University. His research has been published in suchjournals as the Journal of Media Planning, Journal of Business Ethics, Public Relations Review, Public RelationsJournal, Public Relations Quarterly, and Journalism Quarterly. E. LincolnJames is Associate Professorand Assistant Chairperson in tke Department of Advertising at Michigan State University.His work has appeared in several scholarlyjournals, including the International Journal of Advertising,Journal of Advertising, Journal of Direct Marketing, Journal of Media Planning, and Weberforschun g und Praxis. ethics. Such antipathy and concerns have a considerable history, having begun earlier in this century (Rogers, 1990). Since a national meeting of the Advertising Federation of America in March 1942, during which it created a 39-point code of ethics for advertising during World War II (The New York Times, 1942), U. S. ublics and regulatory agencies and businesses worldwide have had a consuming interest in ethics. In his widely acclaimed book,The Ethics of Advertising, Bishop (t949) argues that the ethicai standards of advertising should â€Å"meet the practical requirements of society at a given stage of development† (p. 88). Thus he suggests utilitarian, relativistic, not rigid, standards of ethics for the ad industry. In Nevett's (1985) rebuttal to Bishop's (1949) argument, he concluded: â€Å"The ethical case for advertising stands in need of rigorous re-examination† (p. 04). The industry is not oblivious to such a need; existing programs are being reva mped and others are being developed to respond to ethical issues. Indeed, selfregulation for socially responsible conduct has become an attractive option of industry associations as advertising practitioners report that their activities conform to the principles of business conduct, adopted March 2, 1984, by the Board of Directors of the American Advertising Federation (,~a~F)(Chonko et al. , 1987).This article re-examines advertising ethics and argues that the perfunctory adherence of the advertising industry to deontotogical ethics results in a public perception of the industry as more susceptible, on the average, to ethical dilemmas than are most other management functions. So pervasive is this perception that Bergerson (1991-1992), chairman of the Self-Regulation Committee of the AAF, criticized industry efforts that were largely directed at treating the symptoms of the problem rather than Journal of Business Ethics 13: 455–468, 1994.  © 1994 KluwerAcademic Publishers.P rinted in the Netherlands. 456 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James Greyser and Reece's (1971) update of the 1962 HBR study (Greyser, 1962) indicated that while business leaders had a continuing strong respect for the economic role of advertising, advertising standards had slipped in some areas from standards reported in 1962; and, advertising content, particularly its perceived truthfulness, drew major criticisms. More recent research underscores a rising tide of questionable practices and ethical problems among advertising practitioners (Carson et al. 1985; Hunt and Chonko, 1987; Nevett, 1985; Ossip, 1985; Rotzoll and Christians, 1980; Haefner, 1991).Consequently, Bergerson (1991–1992), for example, observes cynicism and indifference among the public toward advertising: â€Å"If the legislators, regulators and the public perceived advertisers to be more committed to legal and high ethical standards, their level of trust wilt rise and their level of unwelcome attention will fallâ₠¬  (p. 22). the problem itself. â€Å"Everyone in the industry should be interested in being a part of the solution,† Bergerson (1991-1992) wrote. The solution is to restore and maintain advertising's credibility† (p. 22). Purposes of study The purposes of this study are twofold. First, it examines AAF members' perceptions of four scenarios on advertising ethics, and analyzes their reasons for perceiving such scenarios as they did. Because members of the AAF — the largest association of advertising practitioners in the United States – operate in the trenches of the U. S. advertising industry, their perceptions could be typical of those in the industry.Based on their comments, the present study argues that deontological ethics be applied more readily to decision-making than is currently the case. Second, this study links practitioners' perceptions to ethical theories. Such a linkage is important because â€Å"(ethical) theories are like windows onto the w orld of moral reasoning. They are meant to provide vantage points from which important ethical decisions can be considered† (Lambeth, 1986, p. 25). The results of this study are, therefore, presented within the specific framework of classical theory: deontology.Theoretical framework: The classical ethical theory ofdeontology Advertising practitioners continually explore ethical systems that will guide their decision-making processes. Lambeth (1986) observes that such a â€Å"system of ethics cannot ignore the classical approaches of deontology and teleology, or the variants of them† (p. 28), and identifies the characteristics of such a system: A system of ethics must be flexible,but not so flexibleas to be a mere rationalization for the personal preferences of those who invoke it.In short, a systemmust have bite and give direction. Its precepts should offer continuity and stability, though not necessarilyinvariant outcomes. Rationale for study The growing literature on the morality of business practices indicates that, aside from greater semitivities to the environment and greater emphasis on a number of socially responsible actions, businesses, for the most part, still face ethical issues that were prevalent in the 1960s. The advertising profession, as business, is no less immune to the unsavory public perceptions of business ethics in general.Almost 30 years ago, while a Harvard Business Review (HBR ) survey of business leaders indicated great respect for and an improvement in the standards of advertising during 10 previous years, there was a greater tendency on the part of the leaders to think that a code of ethical pracnces was more desirable for advertising than it was for their own industries (Greyser, 1962). (p. 28) Kantian ethics, a time-honored classical ethical theory, provides the framework for discussing the implications of self-reported ethics for the advertising industry.Deontology is a duty-based, nonconsequentialist theory of ethic s that asserts that certain, human actions are inherently† right or wrong. (Eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) provided much of the moral reasoning for pure deontology. ) The emphasis is on the doer's actions. For example, it is always wrong to steal, lie or break a promise; it is one's moral duty to Advertising and ClassicalEtflical Theory tell the truth and to keep one's promises – regardless of the consequences.Universalizing an action is one criterion offered by Kant for determining the ethics of a decision or action. Does the decision, action, or advertising message treat people as ends or as means toward an end? Kantian ethics requires that the doer respect the rights, status and dignity of the people with whom she or he interacts. Deontology has a unique appeal to and major implications for the ethics of advertising practitioners. Consequently, the continuing search for clear-cut do's and don'ts is a major focus of a number of advertising departments, agencies, and associations.One worldwide approach to such a search is the adoption of an ethics code whose imperatives, with a deontological bent, require, for example, that â€Å"we will not knowingly create advertisement that contains false or misleading statement or exaggerations, visual or verbal† (American Association, 1990). Such self-regulation by codes of ethics is, therefore, one far-reaching measure the advertising industry has taken to address the everyday ethical questions that it confronts. Such a strategy contradicts Ekehind and Saurman's (1988) argument that such codes may not improve the professionalism of the practice.The rationale for such codes, argue advertising practitioners, is that the industry can distinguish right fi'om wrong. Beyond that, such self-regulation has the advantage of addressing headon some of the unfavorable public perceptions of advertising. The eight-item Advertising Principles of American Business, adopted Mar ch 2, 1984, by the American Advertising Federation Board of Directors, is replete with non-conditional, unequivocal â€Å"shalls† and â€Å"shall nots,† again, indicative of deontological requirements or proscriptions.Similarly, the Standards of Practice of the American Association of Advertising Agencies uses â€Å"musts† and â€Å"will nots† to disapprove unethical conduct among practitioners. These principles and standards satisfy both the principle of unity† and Kant's categorical imperative and reject the notion of situational ethics (Briggs and Bernal, 1992). Thus, theoretically, the advertising practice embraces non-conditional ethical requirements. A number of professional associations that seek self-regulation of advertising in the United States have adopted a number of codes of conduct to 57 which practitioners are expected to adhere, emphasizing, in essence, the importance of deontological ethics. Research questions This study poses three research questions: a What are AAF members' overall perceptions of advertising ethics as oudined in four scenarios on ethics? [] Do such perceptions vary significantly by the type of ethical issue confronted? a What are the implications of the classical theory† of deontology for the self-reported ethics of the sample practitioners?Method Questionnaire development A three-part questionnaire that had six statements on each of four potentially troublesome scenarios on moral issues was designed and pretested for clarity† and face validity on 20 respondents randomty selected from the relevant population. Responses to six statements on eachscenario were anchored on a four-point scale: 1 for â€Å"definitely yes,† 4 for â€Å"definitely no. † Respondents were requested 😠® comment briefly on their responses to the scenarios.The scenarios were developed by reviewing the standards of practice developed by three advertising associations: the 55,000-member AAF, the largest association of advertising professionals whose code of ethics was established in 1965; the American Association of Advertising Agencies, whose code was first adopted in 1924; and the National Advertising Division/ National Advertising Review Board, whose ethics code was created in 1971. The reviews identified issues of greatest ethical concern to the advertising industry.Additionally, the research literature on ethics in marketing and advertising was also examined for insights on formulating the scenarios. Hunt and Chonko (1987), for example, in extending an earlier study by Rotzoll and Christians (1980), identified six 458 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James Data collection major ethical problems from the responses of 269 advertising executives to an open-ended question: â€Å"Would you please briefly describe the aspect of advertising that poses the most difficult ethical or moral problem confronting you in your daily work? † (p. 19).Also, Wood et al. (1988) used 16 vig nettes to examine the ethics of business students and business professionals. Similarly, Bellizzi and Hite (1989), DeConinck and Good (1989), Dubinsky et al. (1991), Fraedrich and Ferrell (1992), and Mason et al. (1990) used scenarios, vignettes and statements to assess respondents' perceptions of ethics. Such hypothetical, ethics-related scenarios provide insights into business ethics, and have been found useful in replicating real-world situations for the purpose of evaluating moral conduct (DeConinck and Good, 1989; Dubinsky et al. 1991; Madden, 1989; Hegarty and Sims, 1979). A single-wave mail survey was used to collect data from the practitioner sample from the fall of 1991 through the winter of 1992. To encourage candid practitioner responses and to obtain an optimal response rate, a hand-typed, individually addressed covering letter, in which respondent's anonymity was assured, accompanied each questionnaire. A business-reply envelope was in each piece of mail. Respondents we re requested not to write any identifying information on the questionnaire. Results [email  protected]'le on respondents SamplingA systematic random sampling procedure was used to select names of AAF clubs and federations from the 1991 roster of the AAF. Following the receipt of notification that club participation in the survey had been approved, we mailed 2,010 copies of the questionnaire to executive directors or secretaries of clubs. Copies were distributed during general meetings of the clubs. Four hundred eighty-one of the 2,010 copies were returned in a single-wave mailing, yielding a 23. 9% response rate. Only 460 (22. 9%)were usable. This low response rate is consistent with those of similar studies (Akaah, 1990; Chonko et aI. 1987; Fritzsche and Becket, 1984; Greyser and Reece, 1971; Hunt et al. , 1984; Myers et al. , 1980; Randall and Gibson, 1990), which reported response rates between 17% and 31%. One hundred seventy-four respondents provided reasons for their respons es to all four scenarios, for an item-response rate of 37. 8%. Because one purpose of this study is to analyze respondents' reasons for their philosophical perceptions, the analyses of responses focus on those respondents who provided such comments. Table I presents a seven-item profile on the 174 respondents. The gender split was almost equal.About 4% of the respondents were 25 years or younger, 29% were between 26 and 34 years old and 34% between 35 and 43 years old. Eight percent and 5. 7% were in the 53-years-to-61-years and the 62years-or-older categories, respectively. Respondents represented each of 25 states in the United States. However, four states – California, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan – each had 10 or more open-ended responses. California, with 44 returns, had the most responses. More than one-half of the respondents had between one and 10 years of full-6me advertising experience, 26% between 11 and 20 years' experience, and 11% between 21 and 30 years' experience.About 1%had more than 40 years' experience. With regard to respondents' institutional affiliations, about 44% worked in an advertising agency or department, 17% in companies or corporations, 3. 4% in nonprofit organizations, and 32% in other organizations. About 35% of the respondents indicated that they were in top-management positions, for example, as owners, presidents, executive vice presidents, vice presidents, and directors. Twenty-six percent were categorized in upper-middle management positions: division heads, supervisors, managers.About 40% were categorized in lower-middle management positions, for example, as account executives, while 3%were categorized as non-management personnel. Advertising and Classical EtkicaI Theory TABLE I A demographic profile on respondents (N = 174), in percentages Gender Female Male States with 10 or more responses California Colorado Illinois Michigan 25. 3 6. 9 5. 7 10. 9 50. 6% 49. 4 459 While 24% of the respondents did not super vise any employees, a majority held supervisory positions. About 63% supervised between one and 10 eraployees, 7% between l l and 20, and about 3% more than 21 employees.Respondents' evaluation of and conmaents o n scenarios Scenario No. h (Giving gifts to a potential client) This scenario focused on a female ad person who gave gifts to a potential client with the intent of receiving assistance from the client in obtaining the latter's account. Slightly more than one-half of the respondents said that the ad person was wrong, t7% reported that she should be fired, 40% would do just what she did, while 56% said that most ad execs would do as she did. About 83% said their firms should address the situation formally in a policy.In this scenario, gift-giving perse was not an issue; however, the intent of that practice is important because one study (Hire and Beltizzi, 1987) indicated that gifts tend to obligate a client to a firm. Some respondents in the present study considered it a bri be. One, for example, wrote: â€Å"Any company I managed had a written policy on such matters. Mary would have been reprimanded orally and in writing. A copy would be placed in personnel file. This would contain a ‘warning. ‘ Next time, fired. † Another: â€Å"If it was an overt bribe it was wrong. If it was really a gift then no problem. A respondent who was blunt about the wrongness of the conduct defended its widespread occurrence in the industry: â€Å"What Mary did was wrong, but it is common practice in a more subtle way. † Perhaps reflecting the percentage of respondents who said that most ad executives would do what the ad person did, a number of respondents pointed out that the situation â€Å"happens quite frequently,† that it is â€Å"common practice,† that â€Å"‘gifts' is a highly ambiguous term,† that it is â€Å"standard in the industry,† that most account executives â€Å"routinely give away whatever they can to get business,† and that â€Å"romancing the client is part of business. Therefore, they think that nor much is wrong with it. In fact, most argued that it depended on the nature of the gift. Age 25 or younger 26–34 35–43 44–52 53–61 62 or older Years in full-time advertising 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 More than 40 years Work Setting Advertising agency/department Public relations agency/department Non-profit organization Company/corporation Other Management position Top management Upper-middle management Lower-middle management Number of employeessupervised 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 5t or higher 24. 1 62. 7 6. 9 2. 9 1. 7 1. 1 0. 6 34. 5 25. 8 39. 7 43. 7% 3. 4 3. 4 17. 2 32. 2 6. 52. 3 25. 9 10. 9 2. 9 1. 1 4. 0 29. 3 33. 9 19. 0 8. 0 5. 7 460 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James TABLE lI Responses to statements on ethics scenarios % yesa Mean u SD Statements on Scenario No. 1 (Giving gifts to a potential client) 1. What Mary- did was wrong. 2. Ma ry should be fired. 3. I would do just what Mary did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what Mary† did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of mr† response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice.Statements on Scenario No. 2 (Lying about an update on an account) 1. What John did was wrong. 2. John should be fired. 3. I would do just what John did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what John did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy-, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my finrddept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. Statements on Scenario No. 3 (Seeking confidential information) 1. What Pete did was wrong. 2. Pete should be fired. 3. I would dojffst what Pete did. . Most ad execs wo uld do just what Pete did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. 63 18 40 47 22 2. 16 3. 35 2. 01 2. 43 3. 28 1. 14 0. 852 0. 961 0. 856 0. 917 59 18 57 78 24 2. 29 3. 43 2. 48 3. 00 3. 23 1. 05 55 17 40 56 31 2. 36 3. 40 2. 01 2. 62 2. 99 1. 18 0. 811 0. 982 0. 939 1. 15 83 1. 68 0. 918 0. 807 1. 03 0. 825 1,05 72 2. 04 1. 05 67 2. 12 1. 01Advertising and Classical Ethical Theoly Table)8 (Continued) %yes ~ Statements on Scenario No. 4 (Using outdated data) Mean b 46 t SD What Sally did was wrong. Sallyshould be fired. I would do just what Sally did. Most ad execs would dojust what Sally did. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either writtm. ~or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 82 46 11 36 41 t . 62 2. 68 1. 51 2. 26 2. 84 0. 993 1. 07 0. 742 0. 9 t0 1. 12 81 1. 77 0. 39 a Percent responding â€Å"definitely yes† or â€Å"maybe yes. † b On a four-point scale, with 1 = â€Å"definitely yes† and 4 = â€Å"definitely no. † A lower mean score indicates a stronger agreement with a statement. Another, perhaps thinking situationally, asked: â€Å"Is it a pen, a ticket to a concert, or an automobile? † A president of an ad agency said: â€Å"Often, in this business, I encounter prospective clients that have been ‘wined and dined' by their previous agency. Some expert preferential treatment. The prospects that find this offensive and rely mostly on our agency's ethics, expertise and integrity are those we desire.This philosophy has lost us business, slowed our growth . . . . Business ethics unfortunately in the ad business is perceiv ed next to snake oil salesmen! † was wrong substantiated their positions with the following reasons: â€Å"There definitely are times when one must prioritize his/her workload . . . One should not lie to the client but instead talk openly about a schedule of completion and possibly see ifa delay would be acceptable. † D,- â€Å"Schedules for each project~client are developed on approval of estimates. All work is to be done per that schedule, regardless of dollars involved. â€Å"A company should try to meet a ctienCs deadlines no matter the size o f the account. † O n the other hand, some of those who felt nothing wrong had occurred said: ‘[john did tell the t r u t h . . . For John to tell the whole truth is simply suicidal. Agencies are always juggling workloads. † m,- â€Å"What John said was not a definite lie. As long as you do not directly tie about a scenario, don't worry. † m,- ‘[John did what most people would do, then work a li ttle harder to get the other work OUt. † &enario No. 2: (Lying about an update on an account)This scenario was on the failure o f an ad agency staffer to tell a client the truth about the status o f the client's account, which had been set aside temporarily in preference for a newer, higher-hilling account. Fifty-nine percent said that the ad agency staffer was wrong, 18% said that he should be fired, 57% reported that they would do just what he did, while 78% said that most ad execs would do what the staff did. About 72% said their agencies should address the situation in a policy. Some of those who argued that the agency staff â€Å"I see no reason to forfeit future business and, 462 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James herefore, would use whatever means necessary to maintain the relationship. † did. Eighty-one percent said that their agencies should address situation in a policy. Respondents were clearly angered by the ad executive's action. A respondent said: â€Å"This con duct is indefensible. The client paid for both the campaign and the research (I assume) and is entitled to their results. † â€Å"There should be truth in advertising and in all of life's encounters, business or personal. † Another: â€Å"Sally practiced deception in not using those current poll results. The client is bound to find out what sort of results the corporate image has, eventually. Yet another: â€Å"Bad judgment to cover up facts. Corrective measures to improve numbers in future campaigns should be provided to client. † Some arguments made in behalf of the ad executive: †¢ â€Å"They [the numbers] can be used as indicators, but not absolutes. How many people do you know that have participated in TV Nielsen rating surveys and how many programs have the networks cut or kept that you disagree with? † â€Å"What Sally did was not necessarily wrong or right, given the question. Possibly the campaign required more impact, time, etc. Too many v ariables in this situation to judge ethics. † â€Å"Numbers are arbitrary and research is imperfect.One set of ‘bad' numbers is, therefore, inconclusive. † &enario No. 3: (Seeking confidential information) During a social meeting, one ad account executive craftily encouraged another obviously inebriated ad executive who handled the account for a competing brand to divulge confidential business information. Sixty-three percent said that the ad account executive was wrong. Eighteen percent said that he should be fired, and 40% that they would do just what he did, while 47% said that most ad execs would do what the executive did. Sixty-seven percent said the ad agency should address the situation through policy-making.Among all four scenarios, scenario No. 3 had the second-highest disapproval rate among respondents. One respondent made a blunt, succinct comment: â€Å"A definite breach of professional ethics. † Another: â€Å"This is unacceptable as well as u nethical behavior. Once the account exec had identified himself, Pete should have identified himself as well. Pete should be reprimanded for his actions, maybe even fired if it appears as if this same scenario would continue in the future. † Another: â€Å"It was wrong not to identify himself. † Yet another: â€Å"Pete's taking advantage of his ‘counterpart' was opportunistic and immoral. A respondent who saw nothing devious here argued: â€Å"It is a very competitive market. Taking advantage of the competition's weakness or stupidity is a must. † Another argument: â€Å"Corporate espionage is no more or less right or wrong than is political espionage. † †¢ †¢ Comparison of means Scenario No. 4: (Using outdated data) In an agency's report to a client, a female ad executive used outdated data that were favorable to both her ad agency and client, while ignoring new, unfavorable information. Eighty-two percent – the highest among all s cenarios for statement No. – said that the female ad executive was wrong, 46% said that she should be fired, 11% that they would do just what she did, while 36% said that most ad execs would do what she Two analytical procedures were used to compute and compare responses to all four scenarios. First, the percentage response to each statement was computed for comparison of the directions of response patterns. Second, item-by-item statistical differences between 36 possible pairs of responses across all four scenarios were determined. Schefft's (1953) multiplecomparisons were used to determine such differences (Table III).Twenty-five of those 36 pairs and four of the six variable pairs of grand means were significantly different (p ;lt; 0. 05, at least) from each other, indicating respondents' differentiation of their evaluation of the scenarios. Thus, this result indicates Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory TABLE III Comparison of means, grand means (and standard deviati ons') for four scenarios on advertising ethics Scenario One 2. 3; (1. 18) 3. [email  protected] (0. 811) 2. 0P (0. 982) 2. 62~ (0. 939) 2. 99~ Scenario Two 2. 29~ (1. 05) 3. 4Y (0. 807) 2. 48b (1. 03) 3. 00b (0. 825) 3. 23b Scenario Three 2. 1; (1. 14) 3. 35~ (0. 852) 2. 0P (0. 61) 2. 43~ (0. 856) 3. 28b 463 Statement 1. What X did was wrong. 2. X should be fired. 3. I would do just what X did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what X did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, on situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, on situation or practice. Grand Mean Scenario Four 1. 62b (0. 993) 2. 68b (1. 07) 1. 5V (0. 742) 2. 26d (0. 910) 2. 84~ (t. I 5) (1. 05) (0. 9! 7) (1. 12) 1. 68~ (0. 918) 2,63~ (0. 406) 2. 04b (1. 05) 2. 58~,b (0. 362) 2. 12b (1. 01) 2. 74c (0. 378) 1. 77~ (0. 39) 2. 52b (0. 401) ~,b. ~ Means with different superscripts on the same row are significantlyà ¢â‚¬  different, by ScheffS's repeated-measures design. Note: Means are on a four-point scale, with 1 for â€Å"definitely yes† and 4 for â€Å"definitely no. † Statements 3 and 4 were reverse-coded as t for â€Å"definitely no† and 4 for â€Å"definitely yes. † A lower mean score, therefore, indicated higher self-reported ethical standards. that the sample practidoners' perceptions of ethics vary significantly by the type o f ethical issue confronted, suggesting perceived differences in the intensity of the application of deontology to the scenarios.Fritzsche (1988) and Fritzsche and Becker (1984) reported similar differences across vignettes, and concluded that marketing managers practiced situational ethics. For three of the four scenarios, respondents tended to agree with the statement that the advertising staff involved in the conduct identified in each of the scenarios took the wrong action. However, they tended not to agree that the staff should b e fired. It was only in scenario No. 4 (using outdated data) that members tended to perceive the conduct as wrong; even so, the mean response to the statement that the staff â€Å"should be fired† was 2. 8, which was significantly different (p < 0. 001) from re- spondents' positions on the firing of the three other practitioners in the other three scenarios. Contextual response An overall evaluation of the respondents' evaluation of the wrongness or rightness of a conduct – the essence of Kantian ethics – indicates that the sample AAF members leave little doubt about their positions on the scenarios outlined in the questionnaire. However, when the evaluations of the statements, taken together, are considered within the context o f classical ethical theory, the members' ethics leaves much to be desired.Four questionnaire statements (items 1, 2, 3 and 6 of Tables II and III) were used as direct measures of deontology: â€Å"was wrong,† â€Å"should be f ired,† â€Å"I would 464 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James do,† and â€Å"regardless of my response. † It must be noted here that, even though deontology does not address explicitly the severity of the punishment for an ethical infraction, the theory is not neutral on punishment. Justice is one of the moral values that deontology considers – even though not always explicitly. In mixed-rule and mixed-act deontology, the consequences of one's actions are considered.In essence, there is a built-in role for consequences. This was why Kant, admittedly vague in some areas, invented moral rules in the first place. Responses to the four deontology-related statements provide four indications of the extent of practitioners' adherence to Kantian ethics. First, the respective percentages (28. 7%, 28%, 40% and 65%) of respondents who reported that the actions of the practitioners cited in the four scenarios were definitely wrong indicate that fewer than one-half applied deon tological theory to three of the four scenarios.Second, that the practitioner should be fired, the ultimate test of ethics (Singer, 1992), had much lower, definite approval rates: 1. 7%, 1. 1%, 3. 4%, and 16. 1%. Third, the response percentages for item 3 (â€Å"I would do just†¦ â€Å") in scenarios one, two, and three indicate that a sizable number of respondents would engage in the questionable behavior outlined in the scenarios. For scenario four, however, 11% said that they would â€Å"definitely† or â€Å"maybe† engage in a behavior that 82% of them reported as wrong.Finally, on item 6, a clear majority indicated an interest in organizational response to the issue raised in each scenario. The response percentages for statements 1, 2, and 3, therefore, indicate that practitioners' evaluations are clearly at odds with tile tenets of deontology and are perhaps more in line with utilitarian and relativistic theories. A further indication of the sample practiti oners' adherence to deontology is provided by those who responded â€Å"definitely yes† or â€Å"maybe yes† to all four measures of deontology in all four scenarios.The results: 10% 10%, 16%, 32% for scenarios 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Such low percentages suggest that a majority of members wavered in applying deontology to the ethical dilemmas with which they were confronted. Bishop (1949) argues that truthtelling (addressed in scenarios 2 and 4) in advertising is â€Å"impossible and the attempt to attain it would reduce advertising to complete ineffectiveness and prevent it from fulfilling its legitimate and necessary function† (to. 88).Yet, the first of AAF's eight-principle code of ethics, albeit stated in general terms, focuses on truthtelting: â€Å"Advertising shall tell the truth, and shall reveal significant facts, the omission of which would mislead the public† (American Advertising Federation, 1984). While AAF members report that their com panies adhere to AAF principles, they report that other ad agencies tend to adhere less strictly to those principles (Chonko et al. , 1987). Adherence to the truth principle is not only evident among AAF members but it has the largest â€Å"my† versus â€Å"other† company difference ([t – 23. 2, p < 0. 01] Chonko et al. , 1987). A number of U. S. corporate executives now realize that if ethical transgressions are not sanctioned by dismissals, they could encourage all kinds of shady dealings and foster the perception that the organization is not really committed to ethics (Singer, 1992). It is plausible that a mix of utilitarian, JudeoChristian, veil-of-ignorance, and golden-mean ethics simultaneously guided the sample practitioners' evaluation of the ethical scenarios used in this stud),. However, the investigation of the application of various ethical theories to decision-making was not a purpose of this study.Empirical studies on ethics (e. g. , Ferrelt and Weaver, 1978; Fritzsche, 1988; Fritzsche and Becker, 1983; Krugman and Ferrell, 1981; Pratt, 1991; Pratt and McLaughlin, 1989) increasingly indicate that ethics among business people is frequently not perceived in absolutist terms, but in relative shades of right and wrong. Fritzsche (1991, 1988) and Jones (1991), for example, report that situational ethics is the overwhelming preference of U. S. managers. Advertising codes of ethics are usually written in precise deontological terms, for example, â€Å"must recognize,† â€Å"will not,† â€Å"shall tell the truth,† â€Å"shall refrain from. Yet, AAF members do not seem to abide by deontology even though â€Å"an enforced, effective code should provide the profession with a degree of stability and consistency in the ethical decision-making of its members† (Beets, 1991, p. 69). It is plausible that the patterns of responses in this present study suggest adherence to utilitarian ethics, which is preferred by advertising agency personnel Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory (Rotzotl and Christians, 1980; Christians et al. , 199 I). On the other hand, utilitarian ethics seeks to maximize the good for all concerned.However, the limitation of this ethical theory is inherent in how the â€Å"good† is determined. Beyond that, the interests of the minority tend to be given short shrift. What, therefore, are the chances that advertising-agency actions will result in the â€Å"greatest happiness for the greatest number†? Also, Nevett (1985) disagrees with Bishop's (1949) suggestion that the ethical standards of advertising be utilitarian because such an approach cannot â€Å"provide advertising people today with guidance on suitable ethical standards for their profession† (e. 04). Rawls (1971) criticizes utilitarianism, noting that it does not take seriously the differences among people; rather, it views as morally just that which has the sum of satisfactions (or tota l utility) for the community. As an alternative to utilitarian thought, Rawls (1971) suggests â€Å"a new moral theory† that will give adequate account to the primacy of justice, understood as the protection of the equal rights of all individuals, over the social good† (Schaefer, 1979, p. 22).To accomplish equal justice in society, therefore, everyone should assume a hypothetical â€Å"original position† – behind a â€Å"veil of ignorance† – which requires that, in evaluating situations, people step from their everyday, status-based traditional roles into an egalitarian position behind a veil. The goal is to develop a conception of justice or of the good from a disinterested, â€Å"equal† perspective. Would a recommendation that practitioners who compromise the ethical standards identified in the scenarios be fired be an illustration of such justice?And would such firing be in an organization's or in a society's best interest? Finally, it is plausible that Judeo-Christian morality – an altruistic, religion-based tradition – is also reflected in respondents' evaluations of the dilemmas in the ethical scenarios. 465 perceived as â€Å"definitely† having such policies for each of the four scenarios (and those who â€Å"definitely† think that having such policies is a good idea) are, respectively, 17. 8 (56. 3), 11. 5 (38. 5), 4. 6 (33. 3) and 15. s (50 0).The large differences between having such policies and thinking that having such policies is a good idea lends credence to the continuing public and practitioner concern over advertising ethics. For advertising agencies, such policies could result in two possibilities: (1) they may encourage agencies to also apply deontology to ethical issues, and (2) they may help agencies initiate an eclectic approach to ethical decision-making – that is, to apply ethical principles that may involve bringing all five commonly used classical theo ries to bear simultaneously on the decision-making process.These five theories, which are not mutually exclusive, fall into one of two broad categories: deontology or teleology. They are (1) Aristotle's golden mean (â€Å"moral virtue is appropriate location between two extremes†); (2) the theoretical framework for this present study, Kant's categorical imperative (â€Å"act on that maxim which you will to become a universal law†); (3) Mill's principle of utility (â€Å"seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number†); (4) Rawls's (1971) veil of ignorance (â€Å"justice emerges when negotiating without social differentiations†); and (5) Judeo-Christian persons as ends (â€Å"love they neighbor as yourself†).Aristotle's theory of the golden mean, a virtuebased ethics, strikes a moral balance between two extremes, one indicating excess, the other deficiency. The mean, in this context, is not a statistical mean but a willingness on the part of th e decision maker to exercise moderation or temperance – a virtue. Such a mean rdates to the individual's particular situation, her or his stay. is, strengths and weaknesses (Chi'istians et aI. , 1991). Utilitarian ethics, a form of teleological ethics, was enunciated by John Smart Mill as that which seeks â€Å"the greatest happiness for the greatest number. To assess the â€Å"greatest good,† a person or organization performs a cost-benefit analysis of an action or decision. If the latter would result in the good of the majority, that is, if its benefits for the â€Å"greatest number† outweigh its costs, then the act is ethically right. Rawls's (197 t) veil of ignorance, a nonconsequen- Conclusion The results presented in this study indicate a strong (perceived) reluctance on the part of the ad agencies to institute policies, either written or oral, that would proscribe unethical conduct. The percentages of respondents whose firms or departments are 466C. B. P ratt and E. L. James tialist theory of justice, governs the assignment of rights and duties and regulates the distribution of social and economic advantages. People, Rawts (197I) argued, â€Å"have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others† (Rawls, 1971, p. 60). Finally, Judeo-Christian morality is an altruistic tradition that is being popularized in the West as â€Å"the more dramauc term agape – unselfish, otherregarding care and other-directed love, distinct from friendship, charity, benevolence, and other weaker notions† (Christians et al. 1991, p. 20). The interpretation of the results of this present study within the context of Kantian ethics suggests that deontology is clearly not the preference of the sample practitioners. The de-emphasis of deontological ethics among practitioners is likely to engender a laissez faire approach to ethical issues. Dubinsky et al. (1991) suggest a reason for this phenom enon from an overall business perspective: â€Å"Many of the situations business people confront are in a ‘gray' area where the delineation between the right versus the wrong action is not clear† (p. 52). On the other hand, strict deontologicaI ethics could encourage advertising practitioners to understand the precise boundaries of ethical and unethical conduct, as has been found among salespeople (Michaels et at. , 1988). It has been reported that managers who apply deontological ethics under uncertain conditions are least likely to change their decisions even when they perceive the risk of their decisions; those who apply utilitarian ethics are more likely to change their decisions to satisfy financial and/or self-esteem goals (Fraedrich and Ferrell, 1992).And herein lies a crucial value of deontological ethics to advertising: more likely, it will encourage advertisers to adhere to the precepts of ethics, setting aside personal financial and social rewards for the pub lic good. At least 67% of the respondents in the present study suggested that their organizations establish policies on questionable conduct (item 6). Why did such a majority suggest such boundaries on behavior? Why would they prefer that formal company policies restrict questionable behaviors?It is plausible that the sample practitioners place much value on formal policies because of the perceived importance of affirmation on what they consider ethical or unethical. Further, such a formal process may indicate more than a perfunctory commitment of their organizations to ethics. This possibility suggests two key questions on the implications of the results of the present study for policy-making: (1) Where lies the responsibility for shaping advertising agency ethics? (2) And what relevant does deontology have for the training of advertising staffs?In a speech given two dozen years ago by Bill Marsteller, founder of the advertising agency, Marsteller Inc. (a forerunner of Burson-Marst eller, the world's third-largest public relations agency), he said: â€Å"It is not enough [for the advertising student] to simply attain general standards of morality and taste; it is important to be subjected to the deliberate considerations of advertising morality and taste†¦ † (Marsteller, 1972, p. 241). Marsteller sees education in advertising ethics as important as that for the production of creative, charming advertising.Just as the effectiveness of training sessions has been called into question (Feldman and Thompson, 1990; Levin, 1989), their impact has also been demonstrated (e. g. , Feldman and Thompson, 1990; Hanson, 1987; Harris and Guffey, 1991). On balance, however, it behooves ad clubs and various advertising associations to establish programs that, at the minimum, sensitize practitioners to some of the social and professional sequelae of their ethics-related decisions. The results of this limited study justify the adoption of such measures.Caveats Two li mitations of this stud), should be outlined. The first is the old issue of â€Å"self-reported† ethics. Even though measures were taken to discourage the use of socially desirable responses, that possibility cannot be ignored because perceptual distoruon is higher when the dependent variable is as highly sensitive as the subject of ethics (Hunt et al. , 1989; Randall and Fernandes, 1991). The second is the representativeness of the sample, which was drawn from 25 states, for the 50,000member AAF.Because the sample was not randomly selected, it is important that this present study be replicated on a larger, more geographically diverse sample to determine the extent to which its results are consistent with those of such a nationwide study. Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory

Give a comparative, cross-national account of social policy in the field of gender equality and family policies. The WritePass Journal

Give a comparative, cross-national account of social policy in the field of gender equality and family policies. Introduction Give a comparative, cross-national account of social policy in the field of gender equality and family policies. : 1). Feminists’ believe that individuals cannot achieve complete freedom so long as inequality continues to persist and that humanity is therefore unattainable. Regardless of this, the gender inequality that exists within family structures is still being recognised as a global issue and is prevalent both in Germany and France. This is partly due to the cultural practices of these societies as cultural relativism is still being used to condone such inequality (Craven, 2005: 3). In addition, as put by Fraser; existing welfare states are premised on assumptions about gender that increasingly out of phase with many peoples lives and self-understandings (1994: 591). It seems as though inadequate social protection is being provided to women in both countries, although France’s social policy regime does appear more favourable to women than Germany’s. This is evidenced by the fact that Germany holds a strong preference for the typical nuclear family ideal and continues to view males as breadwinners and females as homemakers. It is a common belief throughout Germany that women should not work and that they should instead be stay at home mums. This was identified by Peters when he pointed out that; â€Å"Men’s stereotypical role in Germany is one of the income – earning breadwinner, who leaves the house for work in the morning and comes back in the evening† (2001: 93). Because of the stereotypical role that is still being employed in Germany, women end up performing two roles. This is because contemporary women no longer stay at home to look after children and instead choose to become income earners. Furthermore, th e pay gap between men and women in Germany continues to widen and has been criticised for being much wider than other EU states, including France. The European Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding presented the results from the Eurobarometer on Gender Equality in 2010 and concluded that Germany’s figures were getting much worse: â€Å"In 2007, the gap was 23 percent; in 2006, 22.7 percent† (European Commission, 2012: 1). In a study conducted by Davis and Robinson, however, it was evidenced that much of the gender bias stems from family policies and the ideals that have been created by society. Hence, it was demonstrated that well-educated males are less supportive of reducing gender inequality: â€Å"women with employed husbands are less supportive of efforts to reduce gender inequality than women without a male wage earner† (1991: 72). This prevents women from advancing within society and demonstrates how men are capable of stifling the attainment of gender equa lity in Germany. In contrast to the male dominated ideologies that exist Germany, social policies in France do actually appear to be more akin to contemporary society. This has been illustrated by Rodgers who noted that; â€Å"France has a more conscious, clearly defined concept of family policy, which finds expression in statutory and voluntary institutions whose primary or even sole purpose is to promote the welfare of the family† (2009: 113). Both parents of the nuclear family are also entitled to various statutory benefits as of right, which signifies how gender equality is better attained in France than it is in Germany (Rogers, 2009: 113). France has a significant amount of support for women and has had an extensive policy in favour of families for a very long time. A wide range of childcare services are provided in France as well as an allowance system that is deemed extremely generous (European Union, 2014: 1). Such support is intended to encourage and assist parents in finding a work life balance and is clearly working given that France has higher fertility and employments rates of women with children compared to the rest of the EU’s member states (European Commission, 2014: 1). It has been said that the high fertility rates in France largely result from the consistent family policy in France as well as the good employment prospects provided to women (Del Boca, 2008: 2). One of the key characteristics of France’s family policy is the monetary benefits, also known as family allowance. The monetary benefits that are provided to families under this system include child benefit, flat-rate allowance, family income supplement, family support allowance, birth/adoption grant, basic allowance, supplement for free choice of working time and free choice of childcare, education allowance, back-to-school allowance, daily parental attendance allowance, family housing allowance and moving allowance (Cleiss, 2013: 1). In view of the support women are provided with in France, it seems as though Germany’s social policies on gender equality should be strengthened. This is especially so in the labour market where this appears to be amongst the worst of all EU member states. Therefore, not only do women in Germany receive significantly lower pay packets to men but they also receive a lack of support from the government (Curra, 2000). There a widespread misconception in Germany that if family friendly policies are implemented to assist working women, this will lead to them having fewer children, which will decrease the population overall (Giddins and Griffiths, 2006). However, it has been evidenced that â€Å"countries with policies that facilitate female employment are those with the highest fertility rates† (OECD, 2008: 15). This resultantly increases the future supply of workers, which inevitably leads to sustained growth (OECD, 2007: 7). Furthermore, the practices being employed in Fra nce appear to discredit the view that the population will be decreased if further support is provided to women, as this has not happened here and the fertility rates in Germany are low as a result of the lack of support for working mothers. This is due to the fact that women in Germany are more likely to postpone childbearing in order to enter the workforce, which stifles economic growth in the long term (Hering, 2007). Women are thus said to be â€Å"facing difficulties to reconcile family, domestic workload and paid work† (WILPF International, 2013: 1). It has been said that the German government is working on this issue at present and has made great attempts to reinforce child daily care (Fraser, 1994), yet it is arguable whether this is proving effective given the cultural relativism that Germany is submersed with. The generosity of France is illustrative of the support that is given to contemporary families and demonstrates how France’s social family policies are workable in attaining gender equality. Not all agree with this, however, and it has instead been argued that; â€Å"although French women receive paid, four-month maternity leaves; tax breaks for having more children; and other family-friendly government subsidies, their country lags behind many other nations in gender equality† (MNT, 2010: 1). This, it has been said, is largely because of outmoded attitudes about the role of women in society (Girling, 2002: 126). Women continue to earn less than men; they are still being viewed as homemakers and also hold few positions of power European Commission, 2013: 10). This is also the case for those women that remain childless (Milj and Okin, 1988), which suggests that although France provides better support to women, gender inequality still persists. Accordingly, women continue to be treated differently to men regardless of what policies are put into practice. It is questionable whether gender equality can ever be fully attained giv en the attempts that have been made to do so over the years. EU law has made significant attempts to ensure men and women receive equal pay for equal work, though it has been difficult for this to be accomplished. Article 141 of the Treaty of Amsterdam (which amended Article 119 of the Treaty of Rome), obliges member states to ensure that men and women always receive equal pay for equal work, yet it is often difficult to demonstrate that this is not being achieved. This is because the burden of proof is on the applicant to show that, on the balance of probabilities, their comparator is doing work of equal value to theirs or like work, which is considerably difficult (Equality and Human Rights Commission, 2010, p. 1). It is therefore clear from these findings that whilst France does provide greater support to women than Germany does, gender inequalities still exist. France’s social policies thereby need to be rectified so that better equality is being attained. The first step would be to close the gender pay gap, yet it remains to be seen whether this would achieve complete equality as the traditional family model will remain prevalent. Functionalism and path dependency to gender equality and family policies Functionalist’s are of the view that an individuals’ mental state is determined by the role in which they have been provided with in society. Functionalist’s therefore view gender inequality as being a product of traditional societal ideologies (Saggers et al, 2009). This is reflected by the inequality that currently exists within Germany and France. Hence, the traditional nuclear family is still being given due consideration despite the fact that modern family structures are widely diverse. Because individuals have always been taught what the traditional roles of men and women are, individuals tend to conform to such requirements. This is still happening today, whether consciously or not, and is one of the main reasons why gender equality is difficult to attain. Consequently, whilst women are provided with better support in France than they are in Germany, many of the underlying inequalities women are subjected to remain. This is because societal attitudes towar ds men and women have remained the same, regardless as to what social policies have been implemented, as is also the case in Germany. Hence, it is apparent that whilst gender roles in both societies have changed substantially, traditional arrangement remains in force (Giddens and Griffiths, 2006: 467). Social policy in France has advanced significantly over the years and is very supportive of women, yet gender inequality is still prevalent because of the traditional arrangement that remains in force. This is also the case in Germany despite the fact that less support is provided to women as some attempts to close the pay gap have been made, yet it seems impossible for gender equality to be obtained. Path dependency theoretically explains how past decisions influence future ones, regardless as to whether the circumstances are still relevant. It is therefore clear from this theory that history is an important part of the future and shapes the way individuals behave. This theory is reflective of the gender equality and family policy approach that is being adopted in Germany and France. This is because historical viewpoints are being maintained regardless of the fact that the nuclear family is no longer considered the ‘norm’ in contemporary society. As identified by Skocpol; â€Å"the development trends of social modernization may face legacies of path dependent cultural and institutional organisation† (1992: 8). This affects the advancement of gender equality and restricts the ability to improve the lives of women. Because the emergence of social policy is determined by past influences, the typical family ideal is likely to remain instilled in society. This prev ents the modernisation of social policy, which explains why the traditional family model continues to subsist within social and family policy. Furthermore, as noted by Alexander and Welzel; â€Å"path dependent processes with respect to women’s suffrage policy may affect the potential to increase gender equality in particular societies† (2014: 9). This is why women continue to be paid lower than men in Germany and France regardless of the current changes that are being made to achieve equality. This occurs because of the historical gender inequality practices that were being employed because as was pointed out; â€Å"because of the path dependence of the unfolding human life, gender inequality in the early eighties might equally affect today’s opportunities, choices and aspiration levels† (Bjornskov et al; 2007: 2). Past discrimination thereby affects the way women are viewed in society today and will continue to have an impact in the future. Gender equality is still one of the main fundamental principles the EU continually strives for (Article 14 of the European Union’s Convention on Human Rights), yet despite the various policies that have been adopted women are still being treated unfavourably to men. This was recognised by Radacic who argued that; â€Å"notwithstanding these pronouncements, inequality of women in the member states of the Council of Europe persists† (Radacic, 2008: 841). The EU has therefore been largely impotent in challenging gender discrimination and achieving gender equality and although women and men are becoming more equal over the years, â€Å"a principle of perfect equality† (Mill and Okin, 1988: 1) is still not being established in countries such as Germany and France. Adequate family and childcare policies that allow for gender equality therefore need to be implemented, which could be achieved by employing strategies that; encourage female labour market participation, rem ove the gender bias ideologies, provide adequate childcare, promote children’s education and well being and allow for flexible labour. It is unlikely that much of the gender bias that is currently in place will be removed, though there will certainly be some improvements. Germany should be more supportive of women and France should make further attempts to close the pay gap. Conclusion Overall, traditional ideological practices continue to be adopted in Germany and France when it comes to gender equality and family policy. Because of this, women continue to be treated differently to men. It is questionable whether this can ever be rectified given that gender inequality is viewed as a product of traditional societal ideologies. In Germany, women are given less support than they are in France whose social policies appear to be more akin to contemporary society. In spite of this, however, gender inequality is still prevalent throughout France. This is evidenced by the large gender pay gap and the fact that traditional ideologies are still prevalent across all social policy methods. This illustrates that regardless of what social policies welfare states implement, gender inequality will still persist. Improvements to social policy would still benefit the economy, nonetheless, and would develop gender equality further. In Germany, there is a pressing need for greater su pport to be provided to women as well as reducing the gender pay gap, whereas in France the main focus is on the latter. It is doubtful that complete equality would be achieved in light of the fact that the traditional family model remains intact, yet vast improvements could certainly be made. 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Routledge, 2nd Edition. Herring, J., (2007). Family Law, Pearson Education, 3rd Edition. Kania, R. E, (1988). Conservative Ideology in Criminology and Criminal Justice. American Journal of Criminal Justice. Volume 13, Number 1. Lewis, D. (2013) ‘Welcome to the Department’ LSE Social Policy, [Online] Available: www.lse.ac.uk/socialPolicy/aboutUs/introduction.aspx [06 April 2014]. Mill, J. S. and Okin, S. M. (1988) The Subjection of Women, Hackett Publishing Co. MNT. (2010) ‘Gender Inequality Persists in France Despite Family-Focused Benefits’ [Online] Available: medicalnewstoday.com/releases/204545.php [29 March 2014]. OECD. (2007) ‘Babies and Bosses – Reconciling Work and Family Life’ A Synthesis of Findings for OECD Countries. OECD. (2008) ‘Gender and Sustainable Development’ Maximising the Economic, Social and Environmental Role of Women. Peters, D. (2001) ‘Breadwinners, Homemakers and Beasts of Burden: A Gender Perspective on Transport and Mobility’ Institute for City and Regional Planning, Sustainable Development International, 93-100. Radacic, I. (2008) ‘Critical Review of Jurisprudence: An Occasional Series: Gender Equality Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights’, European Journal of International Law, Issue 4, EJIL 2008 19 (841). Rodgers, B. N. (2009) ‘Family Policy in France’ Journal of Social Policy, Volume 4, Issue 2. Skocpol, T. (1992) Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins in Social Policy in the United States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saggers, S. Dodd, J. and Wildy, H. (2009) ‘Constructing the ‘ideal’ family for family-centred practice: challenges for delivery’ Disability and Society, Volume 24, Issue 2. WILPF International. (2014) ‘Racism and Gender Inequality in Germany’ Peace Freedom, [Online] Available: wilpfinternational.org/racism-and-gender-inequality-in-germany/ [29 March 2014]. Cases Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. UK (1985) Series A, No. 94 at para 78 Leyla Sahin v. Turkey [GC] Reports 2005 – at para. 115 Give a comparative, cross-national account of social policy in the field of gender equality and family policies. Abstract Give a comparative, cross-national account of social policy in the field of gender equality and family policies. : 1). During this period, certain groups of society viewed males as being the breadwinners, whilst women were considered the homemakers. Because of this conception, a lack of financial support was provided to women by the welfare state as it was believed that women could rely on the income of their husbands (Herring: 2007; p. 262). Women were far less likely to leave their husbands as a result of this, which could be one of the main reasons why there has been a huge increase in the divorce in recent years (Benson, 2013: 1). It was apparent by many that social policy changes were needed to rectify this imbalance and thus provide women with better protection against inequality (United Nations, 2013: 1). Some feminists believed that ideology was the cause of such inequality and that unless all nation states adopt effective gender equality social policies, women will continue to be treated unfavourably in society (George and Wilding: 1985; p. 122). Some feminists argue that unless equali ty within family structures is addressed, women will never be completely free regardless as to what social policies have been implemented by the welfare state (Craven, 2005: 3). This was recognised by Fraser who was of the view that the policies of existing welfare states are based on assumptions about gender that are increasingly out of phase with many peoples lives and self-understandings (1994: 591). It cannot be said that women are being provided with sufficient protection within society, yet gender inequality is still one of the most important principles that is contained in the human rights law of the European Union (EU). The EU continues to make   progress in the tackling of gender discrimination, as exemplified by Article 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights, though it cannot be said that all nation states adopt the same approach as the EU. Consequently, unless gender equality is being instilled into the frameworks of all welfare states, gender discrimination will be likely to remain. Regardless of the EUs gender equality policies, nonetheless, women continue to be treated less favourably than men and as it has been recognised by Radacic; that despite the pronouncements of gender discrimination, inequality of still persists (2008: 841). It cannot be said that EU policy has had much of an effect in establishing complete equality between the genders,   though it i s questionable whether it ever will (Mill and Okin, 1988: 1). Hence, it has been pointed out that although the EU has paved the way for more equal gender rights in areas such as marriage and employment, inequality persists when it comes to domestic violence, pay and the division of labour (Pascall, 2000: 240). It seems as though the EU has made great attempts towards the attainment of gender equality, yet these have not proven sufficient. Further changes therefore need to be made to ensure that women are not being treated unfavourably to men. Gender Equality and family policies in West Germany Social policy in Germany appears largely to reflect ideological principles, in that males are considered breadwinners, whilst females are considered homemakers. The German people are generally of the view that women should not go out to work and that they should instead stay at home to look after the childrenHence, as illustrated   by Peters; â€Å"Men’s stereotypical role in Germany is one of the income – earning breadwinner, who leaves the house for work in the morning and comes back in the evening† (2001: 93). Although this may be a common belief throughout Germany, it does not provide a true reflection of the gender roles. Women are frequently choosing to work as opposed to staying at home, yet the gender pay gap is also increasing. Germanys pay gap has thus been widely criticised for being one of the largest in the EU and the EU Commission suggest that this is getting worse (European Commission, 2012: 1). Davis and Robinson believe that much of this gender bias is caused by the policies that are being held by families and societal ideals. does seem to have some validity, and social policies still need to be reformed in Germany so that gender equality is being addressed appropriately. Arguably, if effective policies are implemented in Germany, it is likely that this will cause the policies held by families to also change (Seeleib-Kaiser, 2007: 2). This alone will not be sufficient to bring about gender equality, and attitudes will also need to change. It has been suggested by Davis and Robinson that women with employed husbands are less likely to be supported than women with unemployed husbands. This is because, husbands in employment are unlikely to be supportive of efforts to reduce gender inequality (1991: 72). This suggests that women are less likely to advance in society if they receive a lack of support from their husbands. This shows how men can impact the achievement of gender equality. The social policies that exist in Germany should therefore be amended so that gender equality can be improved. At present, women do not receive adequate support from   the government (Gelb and Palley, 2009: 368), though as noted by the OECD some are of the view that if greater support is provided to women, they will be less likely to have children which will have an overall impact upon the German population (OECD, 2008: 15). Conversel y, it was in fact found by the OECD that countries with policies that facilitate female employment are those with the highest fertility rates† (2008: 15). Instead of reducing the population, further support would in fact increase it which is considered integral to economic growth (OECD, 2007: 7). Arguably, the limited support for working   mothers in Germany has resulted in women postponing childbearing so that they can instead enter the workforce in order to financially support themselves. This has an effect upon economic growth (WILPF International, 2013: 1), though it has been said that social policy in Germany is a work in progress and that attempts to reinforce childcare is being made (Spiegel, 2012: 1). Gender Equality and family policies in France In comparison with Germany, social policy in France does actually appear to reflect the ideas of contemporary society, and is thus more favourable to women. This was identified by Rodgers when it was noted that; â€Å"France has a more conscious, clearly defined concept of family policy, which finds expression in statutory and voluntary institutions whose primary or even sole purpose is to promote the welfare of the family† (2009: 113). Statutory benefits in France are also provided, as of right, to both parents. This demonstrates how gender equality is more adequate in France than it is in Germany (Rogers, 2009: 113). This is due to the support women receive in France by the French government and the favourable family policies that exist. Significant support for childcare is also being provided by France and their allowance system is particularly generous (European Union, 2014: 1). The support that is provided to women is thus intended to allow a work-life balance to be achie ved. This approach does appear to be working given the high fertility and employments rates of women with children (European Commission, 2014: 1). Hence, it has been argued that the high fertility rates in France is due to Frances consistent family policy and the excellent employment prospects women are said to have (Del Boca, 2008: 2). Monetary benefits are a key feature of Frances family policy (Cleiss, 2013: 1). This generosity has been considered necessary in supporting women and removing gender inequality in France. Yet not all agree with this approach and it has instead been argued that whilst women in France receive a number of different benefits such as; paid, four-month maternity leaves; tax breaks for having more children; and other family-friendly government subsidies, their country lags behind many other nations in gender equality† (MNT, 2010: 1). This suggests that although a number of social policies have been established in France that intend to provide greater support to women, not all believe that gender inequality is eradicated and instead argued that outdated societal attitudes regarding women are still prevalent (Girling, 2002: 126). Nevertheless, Frances benefit system does appear to be a lot more generous than Germanys, which might be suggested leads to greater equality between the sexes. However, it seems as though complete equality is still not being attained.   There still appears to be a gender pay gap between men and women in France, and women continue to be treated differently in general (European Commission, 2013: 10). Arguably, it is clear from these findings that social policies may not actually remove the gender inequalities that persist within society and that the attitudes of individuals also need to be changed. Functionalist and path dependency to gender equality and family policies Functionalism has been described as a philosophy of mind in that a particular mental state will be dependent on the role it plays on the cognitive system in which it is a part of. In effect, functionalists view the identity of mental states as being determined by its casual relations to sensory stimulations, behaviour and other mental states (Stanford, 2004: 1). Functionalism is clearly prevalent within the approaches that are being employed in both Germany and France since functionalists view gender inequality as a product of traditional ideology within society (Isajiw, 2013: 129).   Ã‚  Ã‚   Given that gender inequality is still prevalent within both Germany and France it might be though that social policies cannot change traditional ideology. Pre-existing notions of the ideal family will be likely to remain and individuals will thus conform to the roles that have been provided to them by society. Whilst gender roles have changed substantially in contemporary societies, functiona lists believe that traditional arrangements remain in force (Giddens and Griffiths, 2006: 467). This is what appears to be happening in France because although social policy has been advanced, gender inequality still exists as a result of traditional arrangements. Furthermore, whilst social policy in Germany is not as supportive of women as it is in France, the same applies here and traditional arrangements continue to prevail. Path dependency is a term that is used to describe the idea that history matters and that we are today a product of what has happened in the past (Margolis, 1996: 1). Path dependency is also reflective of gender equality in Germany and France in that past decisions influence future decisions. This is so regardless of whether the circumstances are still relevant (Arthur, 1994: 33). Historical viewpoints are therefore being maintained despite the fact that this no longer provides a true reflection of reality and as put by Skocpol; â€Å"the development trends of social modernization may face legacies of path dependent cultural and institutional organisation† (1992: 8). Gender equality is affected by this and improvements to the lives and wellbeing of women is stifled. Alexander and Welzel argue that; â€Å"path dependent processes with respect to women’s suffrage policy may affect the potential to increase gender equality in particular societies† (2014: 9). Again, this demonstrates why women continue to be paid less than men in both Germany and France. This results from the historical gender inequality practices because as stated by Bjornskov et al; â€Å"because of the path dependence of the unfolding human life, gender inequality in the early eighties might equally affect today’s opportunities, choices and aspiration levels† (2007: 2). This will continue to affect the way women are treated in the future and it is arguable whether discrimination against women will ever be eradicated. Conclusion Overall, it has been argued that ideological beliefs will continue to influence the ways women are treated in society, and regardless of the social policies that are implemented by welfare states, gender inequality will continue to persist. This is because the traditional roles of males and females will continue to be prevalent within all aspects of life as women will continue to take on the role of a homemaker, whilst men will continue to take on the role of a breadwinner in certain groups of society. Ideology is largely responsible for these inequalities and women will continue to be treated differently to men as a result. This is evidenced in both Germany and France regardless of the fact that their social policy strategies are different and demonstrates how ideology will continue to dominate contemporary society. Thus, women in Germany are treated far less favourably than the women in France, yet both countries are similar when it comes to gender inequality. An example of this ca n be seen in relation to the gender pay gaps which are widespread amongst both nation states. 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